Table 1 Summary of the three studies included in the meta-analysis

Fersum [19]

Norway, The Norwegian Fund

Total n = 94 (from private physiotherapy outpatient practices, general practitioners, and the outpatient spine clinic at the Haukeland University Hospital in Bergen). Participants were aged between 18 and 65 years old diagnosed with nonspecific chronic low back pain for > 3 months

CFT group: Age 41 ± 10.3 years. Gender 24 males, 27 females. Mean duration of symptoms 3–12 months = 6, 1–5 years = 14, > 5 years = 31

Control group: Age 42.9 ± 12.5 years. Gender 22 males, 21 females. Mean duration of symptoms 3–12 months = 6, 1–5 years = 13, > 5 years = 23

Individual Intervention. CFT for 12 weeks by three experienced physiotherapists who had undergone, on average, 106 h of CB-CFT training. The mean number of treatments was 7.7 ± 2.6. The initial session was 1 h, and follow-ups were 30–45 min

Individual Intervention. Joint mobilisation or manipulation techniques for 12 weeks by therapists who were specialists in orthopaedic manual therapy with an average of 25.7 years of experience with no prior training in the use of the MDCS or CB-CFT. Most patients (82.5%) were also given exercises, which included general or motor control exercise as a home programme. The mean number of treatments was 8.0 ± 2.9. The initial session was 1 h, and follow-ups were 30 min

Pain: Week average, NRS

Disability/functional status: ODI

Fear physical activity: FABQ

Other objective measures that were not included in this review

Anxiety and Depression: HSCL-25

Lumbar ROM: Inclinometer method

Patient satisfaction: PSQ

Sick-leave days: OMPQ

Follow-up: 3, 12 months

Ng [20]

Australia, Sports Physiotherapy Australia grant

Total n = 36 (from school and community rowing clubs in Perth, Western Australia). Participants were adolescent male rowers aged between 14 and 19 years old with between 1 and 4 years of school-level rowing experience, suffering from LBP related to rowing

CFT group: Age 16.3 ± 1.5 years. Gender 19 males

Control group Age 15.2 ± 1.5 years. Gender 17 males

Individual Intervention. CFT for 8 weeks by a physical therapist with 5 years’ experience in the Australian Rowing and training in CFT. The initial session was approximately 1 h in duration and follow-up appointments were 30 min. Rowers were seen a week after the initial session and then fortnightly after that

The control group did not receive any elements of the CFT intervention from their coaches or the treating physiotherapist

Disability/functional status: RMDQ

Other objective measures that were not included in this review

Pain: Mean maximum pain during a 15-min ergometer trial, NRS

Back and lower limb muscle endurance: Biering-Sorensen test and isometric squat test

Lumbar kinematics: upper and lower lumbar angle during 15-min ergometer

Follow-up: 8, 12 weeks

O’Keeffe [21]

Australia, No funding

Total: n = 206 (from Ballina Primary Care Centre, Claremorris Primary Care Centre and Mayo General Hospital)

The participants were between 18 and 75 years of age, CNSLBP for at least 6 months duration

CFT group: Age 47.0 ± 13.2 years. Gender 24 males, 82 females. Median duration of symptoms 56 (24–120) months

Control group: Age 50.6 ± 14.9 years. Gender 30 males, 70 females. Median duration of symptoms: 60 (24–156) months

Individual Intervention. CFT for 12 weeks by three experienced physiotherapists who had undergone of CB-CFT training. Treatment was given weekly and reduced in frequency over time. The initial session was 1 h, and follow-ups were 30–60 min

Group-based exercise and education intervention consisting of up to six classes over 6–8 weeks, each lasting ~ 1 h and 15 min, with up to 10 participants in each class

Pain: Week average, NRS

Disability/functional status: ODI

Fear physical activity: FABQ

Other objective measures that were not included in this review

Beliefs: BBQ

Self-efficacy: PSEQ

Coping: CSQ

Sleep, depression and anxiety: SHC

Stress: DASS

Patient satisfaction: PSQ

Follow-up: Post intervention, 6, 12 months